On Defining Smart Cities using Transformer Neural Networks
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24297/ijct.v24i.9579Keywords:
smart city definitions, semantic analysis, transformers, LLM, Smart CityAbstract
Cities worldwide are rapidly adopting “smart” technologies, transforming urban life. Despite this trend, a universally accepted definition of “smart city” remains elusive. Past efforts to define it haven’t yielded a consensus, as evidenced by the numerous definitions in use. In this paper, we endeavored to create a new “compromise” definition that should resonate with most experts previously involved in defining this concept and aimed to validate one of the existing definitions. We reviewed 60 definitions of smart cities from industry, academia, and various relevant organizations, employing transformer architecture-based generative AI and semantic text analysis to reach this compromise. We proposed a semantic similarity measure as an evaluation technique, which could generally be used to compare different smart city definitions, assessing their uniqueness or resemblance. Our methodology employed generative AI to analyze various existing definitions of smart cities, generating a list of potential new composite definitions. Each of these new definitions was then tested against the pre-existing individual definitions we’ve gathered, using cosine similarity as our metric. This process identified smart city definitions with the highest average cosine similarity, semantically positioning them as the closest on average to all the 60 individual definitions selected.
Downloads
References
Deloitte. Smart cities of the future. https://bit.ly/3GqPfRZ
UNECE (2020). People-Smart Sustainable Cities. https://bit.ly/3GB6gJj
Mitchell, W., City of bits: space, place, and the infobahn, September 1995, Computer Science.
Hollands, R., Will the Real Smart City Stand Up? City 12:3 (2008) 302–320. DOI: 10.1080/13604810802479126.
Microsoft. Smart cities: The cities of the future. https://bit.ly/3Nh8am4
Meijer, A.J.; Gil-Garcia, J.R.; Bolívar, M.P.R. Smart City Research. Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 2016, 34, 647–656.
Al-Nasrawi, S., Adams, C., El-Zaart, Ali., Journal of Information Systems and Technology Management, Revista de Gestão da Tecnologia e Sistemas de Informação Vol. 12, No. 3, Sept/Dec., 2015, pp. 541-558, ISSN online: 1807-1775, DOI: 10.4301/S1807-17752015000300003
Ali, Mohammad Afaq and Panchal, V.K., Smart Cities: Definition, Component, and Technology: International conference on Recent Trends in Artificial Intelligence, IOT, Smart Cities & Applications (ICAISC-2020) (May 26, 2020). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3610707 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3610707
Gracias, J.S.; Parnell, G.S.; Specking, E.; Pohl, E.A.; Buchanan, R. Smart Cities—A Structured Literature Review. Smart Cities 2023, 6, 1719–1743. https://doi.org/10.3390/ smartcities6040080
Radford, A., Narasimhan, K., Salimans, T., Sutskever, I., Improving Language Understanding by Generative Pre-Training, https://cdn.openai.com/research-covers/language-unsupervised/language_understanding_paper.pdf
Vaswani, A., Shazeer, N., Parmar, N., Uszkoreit, J., Jones, L., Gomez, A. N., Kaiser, Ł., & Polosukhin, I. (2017). "Attention Is All You Need." In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS 2017). URL: https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.03762
Singhal, A. (2001). Modern Information Retrieval: A Brief Overview. Bulletin of the IEEE Computer Society Technical Committee on Data Engineering 24 (4): 35–43.
Lin, Z., Feng, M., Santos, C. N. D., Yu, M., Xiang, B., Zhou, B., & Bengio, Y. (2017). "A Structured Self-Attentive Sentence Embedding." arXiv preprint arXiv:1703.03130. URL: https://arxiv.org/abs/1703.03130
Sentence Transformers: Sentence Embeddings using BERT / XLNet with PyTorch. https://bit.ly/47RgqkW
Reimers, N. and Gurevych, I., Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networks, Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing, pages 3982–3992, Hong Kong, China, November 3–7, 2019. https://bit.ly/3RnVEme
Sbert: Pretrained Models. https://bit.ly/3NjN8n1
Caragliu, A.; Del Bo, C.; Nijkamp, P. Smart Cities in Europe. J. Urban Technol. 2011, 18, 65–82.
Yin, C.; Xiong, Z.; Chen, H.; Wang, J.; Cooper, D.; David, B. A literature survey on smart cities. Sci. China Inf. Sci. 2015, 58, 1–18.
National Geographic. Smart cities. https://bit.ly/3tfOYhG
TechTarget. Smart city. https://bit.ly/46W8JbY
Bismart. What Exactly is a Smart City? https://bit.ly/3Nm4ijT
World Economic Forum. What is a “smart city”? https://bit.ly/3uNZugF
National grid. What is a smart city? https://bit.ly/3Tpg9Bg
TWI. What is a smart city? Definitions and examples. https://bit.ly/3uZQ1mn
Earth.org. Smart city definitions. https://bit.ly/4admiGH
Cohen, B. (2012), What exactly is a smart city. Fast Company. https://bit.ly/3RAulGq
Thales. What is a smart city? https://bit.ly/48cnFnd
Cisco. What is a smart city? https://bit.ly/3uS5wwL
Moura, F., de Abreu e Silva, J. (2021). Smart Cities: Definitions, Evolution of the Concept, and Examples of Initiatives. In: Leal Filho, W., Azul, A.M., Brandli, L., Lange Salvia, A., Wall, T. (eds) Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95873-6_6
Institute of World Politics (2019). “Smart cities” and their pressing issues in the future, https://bit.ly/3t9lz94
Center for cities (2014). What is a smart city? A concept lost in translation. https://bit.ly/3RwakAN
NVIDIA (2020). What Is a Smart City? How AI Is Going Uptown Around the Globe. https://bit.ly/3RjlDer
Wade, M., Pfaffli, M. P., What is a smart city anyways? IMD. https://bit.ly/3NfLWkA
Formichelli, J. (2016), Making cities smarter, MIT News. https://bit.ly/3TA0SxZ
United Nations Development Program (2023). Smart Cities. https://bit.ly/3RzeY0R
Harrison, C. et al., "Foundations for Smarter Cities," in IBM Journal of Research and Development, vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 1-16, July-Aug. 2010, doi: 10.1147/JRD.2010.2048257. https://bit.ly/4981YVW
Techopedia. Smart City (2021). https://bit.ly/3NkeqcI
Stannard, L., Bigrentz (2023), What is a smart city? Definition and six examples. https://bit.ly/3GCXtXs
ISO 37122:2019(en). Sustainable cities and communities — Indicators for smart cities. https://bit.ly/46WaQMW
IDC (2021). Building Digital Resiliency in Smart Cities and Communities. https://bit.ly/41hiO1R
Tahmasseby, S. The Implementation of Smart Mobility for Smart Cities: A Case Study in Qatar. Civ. Eng. J.2022, 8, 2154–2171.
Angelakoglou, K.; Nikolopoulos, N.; Giourka, P.; Svensson, I.-L.; Tsarchopoulos, P.; Tryferidis, A.; Tzovaras, D. A Methodological Framework for the Selection of Key Performance Indicators to Assess Smart City Solutions. Smart Cities 2019, 2, 269–306.
Wang, H.; Zhang, M.; Zhong, M. Opportunities and Challenges for the Construction of a Smart City Geo-Spatial Framework in a Small Urban Area in Central China. Smart Cities 2019, 2, 245–258.
Baig, Z.A.; Szewczyk, P.; Valli, C.; Rabadia, P.; Hannay, P.; Chernyshev, M.; Johnstone, M.; Kerai, P.; Ibrahim, A.; Sansurooah, K.; et al. Future challenges for smart cities: Cyber-security and digital forensics. Digit. Investig. 2017, 22, 3–13.
Gharaibeh, A.; Salahuddin, M.A.; Hussini, S.J.; Khreishah, A.; Khalil, I.; Guizani, M.; Al-Fuqaha, A. Smart Cities: A Survey on Data Management, Security, and Enabling Technologies. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials 2017, 19, 2456–2501.
Cassandras, C.G. Smart Cities as Cyber-Physical Social Systems. Engineering 2016, 2, 156–158.
Alsamhi, S.H.; Ma, O.; Ansari, M.S.; Almalki, F.A. Survey on Collaborative Smart Drones and Internet of Things for Improving Smartness of Smart Cities. IEEE Access 2019, 7, 128125–128152.
Singh, D.K.; Sobti, R.; Jain, A.; Malik, P.K.; Le, D. LoRa based intelligent soil and weather condition monitoring with internet of things for precision agriculture in smart cities. IET Commun. 2022, 16, 604–618.
Ullah, Z.; Al-Turjman, F.; Mostarda, L.; Gagliardi, R. Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning in smart cities. Comput. Commun. 2020, 154, 313–323.
Ismagilova, E.; Hughes, L.; Dwivedi, Y.K.; Raman, K.R. Smart cities: Advances in research—An information systems perspective. Int. J. Inf. Manag. 2019, 47, 88–100.
Xie, J.; Tang, H.; Huang, T.; Yu, F.R.; Xie, R.; Liu, J.; Liu, Y. A Survey of Blockchain Technology Applied to Smart Cities: Research Issues and Challenges. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutorials 2019, 21, 2794–2830.
Silva, B.N.; Khan, M.; Han, K. Towards sustainable smart cities: A review of trends, architectures, components, and open challenges in smart cities. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2018, 38, 697–713.
Shoaib, N.; Shamsi, J.A. Understanding Network Requirements for Smart City Applications: Challenges and Solutions. IT Prof. 2019, 21, 33–40.
Wenge, R.; Zhang, X.; Dave, C.; Chao, L.; Hao, S. Smart city architecture: A technology guide for implementation and design challenges. China Commun. 2014, 11, 56–69.
Attaran, H.; Kheibari, N.; Bahrepour, D. Toward integrated smart city: A new model for implementation and design challenges. GeoJournal 2022, 87, 511–526.
Khan, I.H.; Khan, M.I.; Khan, S. Challenges of IoT Implementation in Smart City Development. In Smart Cities—Opportunities and Challenges; Springer: Singapore, 2020; pp. 475–486.
Singh, A.; Singla, A. Constructing definition of smart cities from systems thinking view. Kybernetes 2020, 50, 1919–1950.
Green, B. The Smart Enough City, The MIT Press, February 18, 2020.
Haque, A.K.M.B.; Bhushan, B.; Dhiman, G. Conceptualizing smart city applications: Requirements, architecture, security issues, and emerging trends. Expert Syst. 2021, 39, 12753.
Tascikaraoglu, A. Evaluation of spatio-temporal forecasting methods in various smart city applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 82, 424–435.
De Nicola, A.; Villani, M.L. Smart City Ontologies and Their Applications: A Systematic Literature Review. Sustainability 2021, 13, 5578.
Akpinar, M.T. Smart City Applications in Digital Age: State-Of-Art Review and Critique. J. Inf. Syst. Manag. Res. 2019, 1, 37–42.
Dashkevych, O.; Portnov, B.A. Criteria for Smart City Identification: A Systematic Literature Review. Sustainability 2022, 14, 4448.
Caragliu, A.; Del Bo, C.F. Do Smart Cities Invest in Smarter Policies? Learning from the Past, Planning for the Future. Soc. Sci. Comput. Rev. 2015, 34, 657–672.
Capdevila, I.; Zarlenga, M.I. Smart city or smart citizens? The Barcelona Case. SSRN Electron. J. 2015, 8, 266–282.
Joshi, S.; Saxena, S.; Godbole, T. Shreya Developing Smart Cities: An Integrated Framework. Procedia Comput. Sci. 2016, 93, 902–909.
Mora, L.; Bolici, R. The development process of smart city strategies: The case of Barcelona. In Future City—Combining Disciplines; Juvenes Print: Tampere, Finland, 2016; pp. 155–181.
European commission. Smart cities. https://bit.ly/3NjNmKQ
R. Hammons and J. Myers, "Smart Cities," in IEEE Internet of Things Magazine, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 8-9, June 2019, doi: 10.1109/MIOT.2019.8892761.
Frost & Sullivan. Smart cities. https://bit.ly/3NjNB8I
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Andrei Khurshudov
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.