The Origin Of Electric Charge And Its Relation To Closed And Open Strings In The Early Universe

2025-01-20T23:59:41+00:00

The C-Neutralino, a particle of immense significance, is the primary particle that drives the beginning of our universe. The C-Neutralino decays into other particles, including protons and electrons. The C-Neutralino existed before the beginning of time. They were the catalyst for the start of our universe. As the C-Neutralinos start to collide in the early universe, temperatures rise. When temperatures become as hot 10100 degrees celsus our universe gets its start. We understand this as the Big Bang that happened at the beginning of our universe. The electric charge starts in the early universe during the first few minutes. The first moments after the Big Bang are called the quark-gluon plasma phase. In this phase, there are two different periods. The first period occurs right after the beginnings of the universe. The temperatures are so hot during the first few minutes that the quarks and gluons are strings. The top quark and the antibottom quark are strings during this time in the early universe. As they collide, they start to spin, oscillate, and rotate, becoming one quark. This heavy quark called the cd-quark, was responsible for developing electric charges in the early universe. This change in mass of the cd-quark is the true origin of electric charges. Electric charge is not mass dependent on mass amount but on mass change in the early universe. Charged particles have finite lifetimes. They are not stable like other particles.

How to violate the first law of thermodynamics with an ASE of Papain and Newcomen before it was stated by Clausius

2025-02-07T16:11:03+00:00

This paper explores the historical and thermodynamic implications of the atmospheric steam engines (ASE) developed by Denis Papin and Thomas Newcomen in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. These engines, which operated using vacuum-induced contraction rather than steam expansion, seemingly violated the first law of thermodynamics—conservation of energy—before it was formally articulated by Rudolf Clausius in the mid-19th century. Papin's innovative approach utilized thermal contraction and atmospheric pressure to perform mechanical work, a method later refined by Newcomen. The engines achieved work through vacuum generation by condensing steam with cold water, a process that contradicted the conventional understanding of energy conservation as later defined by Clausius and Carnot. The paper analyzes the operational principles of Papin’s and Newcomen’s ASEs, highlighting how their contraction-based work led to an increase in internal energy while performing useful mechanical work, a phenomenon inconsistent with the first law of thermodynamics. The study also examines the transition from contraction-based engines to expansion-based systems, such as the Rankine cycle, and discusses the implications of these early engines on the development of thermodynamic theory. Through case studies and experimental evidence, the paper argues that the first law, as originally stated, fails to account for contraction-based work, suggesting a need for its revision to include such phenomena. The findings underscore the historical significance of Papin’s and Newcomen’s contributions to engineering and thermodynamics, while also raising questions about the completeness of classical thermodynamic principles.

JOURNAL OF ADVANCES IN PHYSICS

The Origin Of Electric Charge And Its Relation To Closed And Open Strings In The Early Universe

How to violate the first law of thermodynamics with an ASE of Papain and Newcomen before it was stated by Clausius